Homework for December 3

Answer to either of these topics:

1. Read "The World as India" by Susan Sontag. Discuss what she has to say about 3 of the following topics: nature of translation, role of the translator, translator's ethics, metaphors for translation, history of translation.

2. What startling statements or inferences about translation do you find in Jack Spycer's After Lorca. Is there faithfulness at stake here? why (not)?

William Carlos Williams and Rewriting by Ana Vanessa Cruz and Gonçalo Henriques

Biography

Williams Carlos Williams was born on the 17th of September 1883 and died on the 4th of March 1963, an American poet intimately connected with the modernism and imagism movements.

Among the contemporary poets commonly connected to him are Robert Frost who was born in 1874, Wallace Stevens, who was born in 1879; and Hilda "HD" Doolittle, who was born in 1886. Of these four, Williams was the last one to die after Frost.

It should be noted that Williams also had a long career as a doctor, he exercised pediatrics and general medicine. Having become pediatric hospital boss at Passaic General Hospital in Passaic, New Jersey until his death. Hospital that now pays tribute to Williams with a memorial plaque declaring "we walk in the wards that Williams walked".

Imagism

A poetical movement poetry that began in 1912 and was represented by Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell, and others, with the purpose of clarity of expression through the use of accurate visual images. An initial period often arises in written form in French. Imagism was inspired by the critical views of TE Hulme, in his revolt against the sloppy thinking and against the romantic optimism that he saw being used.

   The Imagists wrote succinct verses that sought to project effects based on accurate visual images. Imagism was a successor to the French symbolist movement, but while Symbolism had an affinity for music, Imagism sought connection with the visual arts.

 In 1914 Pound turned to Vorticism, and Amy Lowell, largely took over leadership of the group.

In short, Imagism:

Advocated the use of colloquial language

Creation of new sound rhythms

Freedom of choice of subject

Free verse

Clear poetry

Poetry released from the sobriety of rhetorical devices and the sentimentality of poetic productions. It also emphasized the meaning of the writings.

From an Imagist manifesto:

1.         To use the language of common speech, but to employ the exact word, not the nearly-exact, nor the merely decorative word.

2.         We believe that the individuality of a poet may often be better expressed in free verse than in conventional forms. In poetry, a new cadence means a new idea.

3.         Absolute freedom in the choice of subject.

4.         To present an image. We are not a school of painters, but we believe that poetry should render particulars exactly and not deal in vague generalities, however magnificent and sonorous. It is for this reason that we oppose the cosmic poet, who seems to us to shirk the real difficulties of his art.

5.      To produce poetry that is hard and clear, never blurred nor indefinite.

6.         Finally, most of us believe that concentration is of the very essence of poetry.

Williams Carlos Williams Poetic Style:

According to the poet and critic Randall Jarrell, "William Carlos Williams is so magically alert and mimetic as a good novelist He plays the details of what he sees with startling freshness, clarity and economy - refers to short verses. Sometimes he just notices the land forms, the spirit that moves behind the letters. His transparent lines have a nervous system and a strenght that moves sharply and intently like a bird. "

Williams's major collections are Spring and All (1923), The Desert Music and Other Poems (1954), Pictures from Brueghel and Other Poems (1962), and Paterson (1963, repr. 1992). His most anthologized poem is "The Red Wheelbarrow."

Williams is strongly associated with the American modernist movement in literature and saw his poetic project as a distinctly American one; he sought to renew language through the fresh, raw idiom that grew out of America's cultural and social heterogeneity, at the same time freeing it from what he saw as the worn-out language of British and European culture. In 1920, this project took shape in Contact, a periodical launched by Williams and fellow writer Robert McAlmon:

Williams sought to invent an entirely fresh and uniquely American poetry style that would be centered on everyday circumstances of life and the lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the "variable foot", a metrical device to resolve the conflict between form and freedom in verse. With this, he sought American (in opposition to the European) rhythm that he claimed was present in everyday American language. Stylistically, Williams also worked with variations on a line-break pattern that he labeled "triadic-line poetry" in which he broke a long line into three free-verse segments. A well-known example of the "triadic line [break]" can be found in Williams's love-poem "Asphodel, That Greeny Flower."

Rewriting

“Asphodel, That Greeny Flower”

William Carlos Williams' long, late poem "Asphodel, That Greeny Flower" is the fullest example of his work in the variable foot and in the triadic (or three-foot, stepped-down) line, a breakthrough form. It is also one of the most beautiful affirmations of the power of love in--and against--the nuclear age, and one of the few memorable love poems in English written not for a mistress but for a wife: his spouse of 40 years, Florence Herman Williams, or Flossie.

First published in Journey to Love (1955), "Asphodel, That Greeny Flower" came into existence during a time of nearly overwhelming crisis in Williams' life.

The original poem

For our wedding, too,

                the light was wakened

                                    and shone. The light!

the light stood before us

                waiting!

                                    I thought the world

stood still.

                At the altar

                                    so intent was I

before my vows,

                so moved by your presence

                                    a girl so pale

and ready to faint

                that I pitied

                                    and wanted to protect you.

As I think of it now,

                after a lifetime,

                                    it is as if

a sweet-scented flower

                were poised

                                    and for me did open.

Asphodel

                has no odor

                                    save to the imagination

but it too

                celebrates the light.

                                    It is late

but an odor

                as from our wedding

                                    has revived for me

and begun again to penetrate

                into all crevices

                                    of my world.

Our rewriting

Nesta sala de aula,

   as luzes ténues eram

              todavia exibindo …as luzes!

As luzes esperavam-nos

             aguardavam-nos!

                           Cuidava que o mundo

se aquietava

             quando da secretária

                                 me aproximava,

os livros eu tirava

               face à tua figura imponente

                                   tão pálida eras

que parecias desmaiar

               até me compadecia

                             querendo proteger-te.

Agora que penso nisso,

       no fim de contas

                 tudo leva a crer que

uma certa doce flor

         se havia pousado

               e desabrochado para mim.

A verbena

       possui um odor inodoro

                    salvo no imaginário

mas também ela

            tem a sua luz.

            Está a entardecer

mas o odor

        assemelhado à sala de aula

              se tornou intenso para mim

e principiou a penetrar

      em todos os poros

                       do meu mundo.

The differences between the original poem and our rewriting are that, instead of a marriage, we have a classroom environment (something of our modern-day everyday lives); instead of a bride, we have a school teacher; instead of an altar, we changed it into a classroom desk for students; Williams was accused of borrowing 13^th century poets and we decided to have some inspiration on Portuguese classic writers such as Luis de Camões (“tem um odor inodoro”) and Gil Vincent (“cuidava que o mundo se aquietava”); instead of Asphodel, we found another herb that as also connections with the supernatural which is vervain.

Collective Translation "The Avenue of Poplars"

A Avenida dos Álamos

As folhas abraçam-se

nas árvores

é um mundo

mudo



sem personalidade


eu não



busco um caminho


ainda sereno /permaneço / mantenho-me
 com


lábios ciganos     / lábios ciganos


contra os meus       pressionados (colados) aos meus

é o beijo

das folhas

sem ser

hera venenosa


nem urtiga, o beijo


das folhas do carvalho– / roble 


Aquele que beijou


uma folha


não tem de ir mais longe– 

Ascendo / Elevo-me

através de 

uma copa / um dossel de folhas


e simultaneamente


desço

pois não faço nada                 pois nada faço de
invulgar / extraordinário        extraordinário


Sigo no meu carro / viajo de carro / vou no meu carro


penso sobre



cavernas pré-históricas


nos Pirenéus– 

a caverna de


Les Trois Frères

Polylingualism as reality and translation as mimesis, Meir Sternberg

Se por um lado, a tradução dentro de uma obra literária desestabiliza a ortodoxia e cria confusão sobre generos literários, por outro lado constitui um conjunto de ficções de plurilinguismo (a que podemos chamar heterolinguismo, e a que Bakhtin chamou heteroglossia) ou representações artificiais da palavras dita pelos outros. Este fenómeno está desenvolvido na teoria avançada pelo autor Meir Sternberg (professor de Poética e Literatura Comparada na Universidade de Tel Aviv) num artigo com o título “Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis.

Sternberg começa por localizar três possíveis estratégias textuais para evitar o problema de reproduzir discursos tendo em conta as variedades linguísticas:

− Restrição referencial/ referential restriction: consiste em limitar o objeto da própria representação a realidades monolingues (num estatuto, numa comunidade, etc.), excluindo a priori qualquer formas de alteridade linguística.

− Correspondência de modos de expressão linguística / vehicular matching: através desta estratégia, ao multilinguismo da realidade representada corresponde um texto multilíngue. É, segundo Sternberg o caso da obra My fair lady de George Bernard Shaw (1913) em que na realidade multilínguistica de Londres, onde se falava o inglês e outras variantes como o cockney, o autor decide manter as alteridades multilingues visíveis na oralidade. É contestável, porém, o grau em que esta representação do socioleto oral resulta porventura de uma reprodução selectiva (ver abaixo)

Ver Link do vídeo: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jhninL_G3Fg

− Convenção da homogeneização/ homogenizing convention: substitui o dado extra textual de um mundo multilingue por uma representação monolingue. Um exemplo disto encontra-se na obra Alice in Wonderland de Lewis Carroll, em que Alice não se estranha a ouvir o Coelho Branco falar em inglês: Coelho Branco: “Oh dear! Oh dear! I shall be too late!”    

(http://www.adobe.com/be_en/active-use/pdf/Alice_in_Wonderland.pdf)

A representação da heteroglossia divide-se, por seu lado, em quatro modalidades que se caracterizam entre um mínimo e um máximo de realismo linguistico:

− Reprodução seletiva/selective reproduction: uma especie de “citação intercalada no texto”, na qual o narrador/sujeito poético aparece como um filtro que seleciona os elementos de alteridade linguistica, reproduzindo-os à letra. Um exemplo disto encontra-se na última estrofe do poema de Golgona Anghel, «O mundo é estranho, Sandy!»:

Estou com esta doença agora, but it's ok.
I close my eyes and drift away;
I softly say a silent pray.
Não ligues nem comentes,
just press play;
«O mundo é estranho, Sandy! O nosso é parecido.»    

(Golgona Anghel, Vim porque me pagavam, Mariposa Azual, Lisboa, 2011)

− Transposição verbal/verbal transposition: as convenções linguísticas chocam-se entre elas gerando efeitos idiossincráticos (fonéticos, ortográficos ou sintático-gramaticais) que reproduzem na língua ficcional a “estranheza” da língua imitada. Nos exemplos seguintes, Hemingway na sua obra For whom the bell tolls (1940) traduz frases espanholas, literal ou semiliteralmente, criando construções inteligíveis que lembram a dicção de um falante de espanhol com um domínio imperfeito do inglês, o que evoca uma fala forasteira:

Expressão espanhola: “¿Como te llamas?”
Tradução: “How are you called?”

Expressão espanhola: “Me cago en la leche”
Tradução: “I obscenity in the the milk”

Expressão espanhola: “¿Qué tal?”
Tradução: “Did you divert yourself last night?” 

(http://www.24grammata.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Hemingwey-for-whom-the-bell-24grammata.compdf.pdf)

− Reflexão conceptual/conceptual reflection: não se nota tanto a superficie heterolinguística, mas reproduzem-se o sistema de valores e a semântica subjacentes a língua imitada. Há uma reflexão subjacente à natureza de universos de discurso em diferentes línguas / culturas. É possível ver isto na primeira estrofe do poema de Golgona Anghel, «O mundo é estranho, Sandy!»:

O nosso é parecido com a palavra agora.
Das mãos nasce-nos uma espécie de nostalgia trémula
que na versão alemã traduziram por dipsomania.

(A nostalgia de que se fala está ligada a cultura portuguesa, e o texto reflete na maneira em que foi traduzido o seu sentido na língua alemã)

− Atribuição esplícita/explicit attribution: manifesta-se através particularidades lexicais do tipo “disse em francês” ou “respondeu em perfeito inglês”.

Estas diferentes modalidades são organizadas num único continuum, entre um máximo de diversidade linguistica até um máximo de homogeneidade linguística, como é possível ver no esquema seguinte.

vehicular promiscuity
vehicular matching
selective reproduction
verbal transposition
conceptual reflection
explicit attribution
homogenizing convention

No sistema de representação do heterolingual e o heterodialectal há diferentes formas que limitam a representação da realidade na ficção, ou seja: limitação representacional, em que o plurilinguismo não é considerado uma dimensão distinta da realidade; limitações comunicativas, quando duas línguas rejeitam as próprias diferenças; restrição auto-imposta, impor uma linguagem adaptada como no caso da literatura infantil.



Afinal a heteroglossia, representada na introdução da tradução dentro duma obra literária, faz que nós incluamos esta categoria no mais amplo conjunto das técnicas de discurso (speech representation). O que acontece à tradução da representação da tradução, sobretudo quando a fonte de heteroglossia no texto original corresponde à língua da tradução?

Rebecca Handley e Barbara Di Rocco

Homework for November 26

Do either of the following:

1. Research on the Spanish Modernismo of the Generacion de 1927 and speculate on similarities/differences with what you know of Anglo-Saxon Modernism (NOTE. you may want to check the notes in the end of your anthology

2. Research on similarities between Hughes' and Lorca's poetics and ideologic convictions that may have lead to the translations of Hughes (and perhaps justiy some traslation choices as well)

Here, a couple of poems by Hughes,

"Death of Do Dirty: A Rounder's Song" (in Fine Clothes to the Jew, 1927)

O, you can't find a buddy
Any old time
'Ll help you out
When you ain't got a dime.

He was a friend o' mine.

They called him Do Dirty
Cause he was black
An' had cut his gal
An' shot a man in de back.

Ma friend o' mine.

But when I was hungry,
Had nothin' to eat,
He bought me corn bread
An' a stew o' meat.

Good friend o' mine.

An' when de cops got me
An' put me in jail
If Dirty had de money
He'd go ma bail.

O, friend o' mine.

That night he got kilt
I was standin' in de street.
Somebody comes by
An' says yo' boy is gettin' beat.

Ma friend o' mine.

But when I got there
An' seen de ambulance
A guy was sayin'
He ain't got a chance.

Best friend o' mine.

An' de ones that kilt him, —
Damn their souls, —
I'm gonna fill 'em up full o'
Bullet holes.

Ma friend o' mine.

"Nude Young Dancer" (in Weary Blues, 1925) 

What jungle tree have you slept under,
Midnight dancer of the jazzy hour?
What great forest has hung its perfume
Like a sweet veil about your bower?

What jungle tree have you slept under,
Night-dark girl of the swaying hips?
What star-white moon has been your mother?
To what clean boy have you offered your lips?

Poème d'Automne (in Weary Blues, 1925)
The autumn leaves
are too heavy with color.
The slender trees
on the vulcan road
are dressed in scarlet and gold
like young courtesans
waiting for their lovers.
But soon
the winter winds
will strip their bodies bare
And then
the sharp, sleet-stung
caress of the cold
will be their only
Love.

and Lorca's photograph (1898-1936)

"Note on Commercial Theatre" Langston Hughes (around 1940)

You've taken my blues and gone--
You sing 'em on Broadway
And you sing 'em in Hollywood Bowl,
And you mixed 'em up with symphonies
And you fixed 'em
So they don't sound like me.
Yep, you done taken my blues and gone.

You also took my spirituals and gone.
You put me in MacBeth and Carmen Jones
And all kinds of Swing Mikados
And in everything but what's about me--
But someday somebody'll
Stand up and talk about me,
And write about me--
Black and beautiful--
And sing about me,
And put on plays about me!
I reckon it'll be
Me myself!

Yes, it'll be me.

More on this poem and Hughes' recoding of it here.

(1902-1967)

First things first: It was quite difficult for us to recreate the unique and hard to decypher style of T.S. Eliot. It was hard to restrain ourselves from writing an imaginary poem based on his style and techniques.

His writing often incorporated elements of nihilism, hoplessness, despair and delusion, aswell as fragmention, intertextuality, alusions, heavy use of symbolism and imagery and several layers of underlying meanings throughout his verses. One of the most distinguishing characteristic of Eliot’s work (apart from a few that are mentioned below, note also the way he moves from a very high, formal verse into a more conversational and easy style) was the use of a diction with a high level of erudition, which he didn’t lower in order to reach a wider audience.

His words weren’t, by any means, random, he would choose them carefully, especially when he wanted to create a particular effect on his work or on the reader. As with most poets, Eliot made liberal use of metaphors in his work to serve as particularly poignant images. Every verse, every word has a meaning, nothing was written by whim.

As a true modernist poet, Eliot saw the world as it really was, no romance, just plain truth, no matter how cruel it may be. He didn’t let himself get carried away by nostalgia or romanticism when looking into the past, even though he looked into it in search of inspiration, mainly the Indian culture, which he studied back in Harvard, including Sansktrit, the primary sacred language of Hinduism.

Eliot used his deep knowledge of literature and English language to masterfully create poetry with a distinct figurative language that has a profound effect on the reader while, at the same time, maintaining a smooth flow despite its high level of vocabulary.

In his major work, “The Wasteland”, Eliot described a world of alienation, sorrow, emptiness, in which people are no more than zombies, numb beings stuck in a spiral of daily routines, a world in decay where everyone is corrupted in some way or another. This was the basic structure of our poem. We tried to recreate a scenery in which Eliot is present, as a ghostly figure, among the victims of the 9/11 attacks, using everything we learned about Eliot based on his works.

We hope you enjoy our imaginary poem and its analysis.

"Nothingness"

We roam around the remains,

Looking past the veil of existence itself.

Not him, though - space bound in reverie alongside her:

Mother, Mother, haven’t I sat here long enough?

Disdain coats our aching semblants.

Bring me back into your waters!              For I long.

                                                                               For nothing but the feel of rain

On my limp body.

Grant your khadga to caress me, bleeding off my nescience.

I couldn’t care less for these benighted sheep,

Such vacuous stares along the alleyways of Liberty Street

Marching with swaying heads as hollow suitcases.

                                          “Please, don’t!”

                                                Ay, but to die, and go we know not where;

To lie in cold obstruction and to rot.

                                                                                                                                                            

Swooshing through the air craving flight…            Poomb!

Every day feels the same in the wake of striped eyes.

Are we that troubled, is this our Trojan Horse? Will the shift brought upon the world

Yield such tremendous change?

What does it mean, this interlude?

For sure it is a downfall that towers over us all… 

For sure…

This Great Fire of Smyrna,

It is but a rain drop, sweating our brows in the grey.

Frivolity shall glue the stories to their palates!

Broken shells, salty coated, tainted crimson senses

Within foul bones, trite gears of an industrial dummy herd

This garden is not mine to nourish,

Rise me up! Rise me up!

(Scowling)

Allow me to feed, for you are no more

Little one, you are no more

All those moments will be lost in time… like tears in rain.

Explanation / analysis:

We roam around the remains / Looking past the veil of existence itself:

                - The souls of the victims of the September 11 attacks roam through the remains, facing their own death and suffering, watching their own lifeless bodies among the debris.

Not him, though - space bound in reverie alongside her:

              - Eliot is there too, among the souls of the departed, communicating with Kali, the Hindu goddess of Life, Death and Resurrection.

Mother, Mother, haven’t I sat here long enough?:

                - Kali is represented here as a motherly figure (as in Hindu mythology) to Eliot and the victims. Eliot doesn’t empathize with the latter, separating himself from their all too human feelings of loss and grief, hoping instead to be sheltered by her and rise above the human condition.

Disdain coats our aching semblants:

                - The victims look at Eliot with disdain and disapproval for his self-centeredness and disregard for their pain, as well as for his egotism in seeing himself as Kali’s only “son”, as the only one worthy of being taken and risen up by her.

Bring me back into your waters!:

                - Water as symbolic element of rebirth and renewal. Kali’s “waters” are thus representative of a mother’s womb.

For I long / For nothing but the feel of rain / On my limp body:

                - Eliot wishes Kali to wash away his human weaknesses, in a transition from decadence to enlightenment akin to resurrection. Again, water as a representation of rebirth.

Grant your khadga to caress me, bleeding off my nescience:

               - In Hindu mythology, the khadga is the sword used by Kali, not only to kill her victims, but also to give life. Here it serves as a symbol of death and rebirth, while “bleeding” represents healing through the purging of Eliot’s human ignorance and weakness.

I couldn’t care less for these benighted sheep:

                -Eliot feels no empathy or compassion for the victims of the attacks, for he sees them as human “sheep”, as ignorant animals driven by instinct and weak human feelings.

Such vacuous stares along the alleyways of Liberty Street / Marching with swaying heads as hollow suitcases:

                - The uneventful and repetitive nature of ordinary people’s lives is highlighted. They walk through Liberty Street (a street in New York City which borders the World Trade Center site, whose name also provides a somewhat ironic contrast to the prison-like lives of those who “march” through it) on their way to work, with “vacuous stares” (suggesting they are dead inside) and “swaying heads as hollow suitcases” (again represented as being dead inside, with empty souls compared to hollow suitcases, highlighting their nature as mere constituents of the machine of a corrupt and decadent society).

“Please, don’t!":

               - As the attacks happened, some people inside the WTC buildings jumped off to their deaths. Here a onlooker to the tragedy shouts to someone who is about to jump, begging him/her not to do it.

 Ay, but to die, and go we know not where / To lie in cold obstruction and to rot:

                - The person who is about to jump explains his/her motives for doing so with this monologue. It is taken from Claudius’ speech in William Shakespeare’s play Measure for Measure and takes into consideration the inherent uncertainty of death. In this case, the person in question chooses to challenge this uncertainty and decide the means of his/her death.

Swooshing through the air craving flight…            Poomb!:

                - The person falls down and eventually hits the ground and dies. “Craving flight” may also represent an escape from fate, a yearning for freedom, which is, in a way, finally achieved with death.

Every day feels the same in the wake of striped eyes:

                - People are compared to death row inmates, living sterile and monotonous lives, which are little (or nothing) more than a prelude to death, alluding to the nihilistic worldview present in much of Eliot’s poetry.

Are we that troubled, is this our Trojan Horse? Will the shift brought upon the world

Yield such tremendous change?:

               - Eliot asks himself whether the 9/11 attacks will truly change the world, or if it will only put a new spin on human stupidity, violence, cruelty and hypocrisy, which are inherent to the human nature. And as tragic as they may be, the attacks will soon become nothing but a faint memory and people will become desensitized to it.

What does it mean, this interlude?:

               - This verse can be interpreted as having a double meaning: on one hand, Eliot rhetorically questions the meaning of the 9/11 attacks, seeing them as an (ultimately meaningless) interlude to the human experience; on the other hand, and in a broader sense, the interlude can be interpreted as referring to life in general (life as a meaningless interlude, between birth and death).

For sure it is a downfall that towers over us all…  / For sure…:

               - In what is somewhat an instance of dark humor, Eliot sarcastically doubts the real, long-term impacts of the attacks.

This Great Fire of Smyrna:

                - This historical event occurred in September 1922 as part of the Greco-Turkish War. Consisting of a massive fire that destroyed much of the Turkish city, reportedly set by Turkish forces and resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of Greeks and Armenians, it effectively ended the war. In the poem, Eliot establishes a comparison between these tragedies, both a product of human violence and decadence, where fire plays an important role.

It is but a rain drop, sweating our brows in the grey.  / Frivolity shall glue the stories to their palates!:

                - The memory of the attacks will be lost among the trivial thoughts of people’s daily lives. People will become desensitized and carry on with their lives, as they always have.

Broken shells, salty coated, tainted crimson senses / Within foul bones, trite gears of an industrial dummy herd:

              - People step on each other like shells on a beach, living with cynicism and selfishness, and acting like beasts, violent, irrational and blood-thirsty.  They are foul and sinful to the core, acting as nothing but pieces of a blind and mechanical society.

This garden is not mine to nourish, / Rise me up! Rise me up!:

                - Eliot refuses to perish with the others, wishing instead to be elevated by Kali from his flawed and mortal human condition. Death is once again portrayed as nourishing/regenerative.

Allow me to feed, for you are no more / Little one, you are no more:

                - In Hindu mythology Kali is described as cannibalistic, consuming the blood of her victims. In the poem, she decides to ignore Eliot’s pleas for rebirth and enlightenment, perhaps deeming him unworthy of immortality, and kills him. This can also serve as a metaphor for a loss of hope for the future and for humanity, losing its last vestiges of reason and delving deep into the chaotic forces of beastly instinct, irrationality and emotion.

All those moments will be lost in time… like tears in rain:

              - A line taken from the film Blade Runner, it signifies in this poem the fading of the memory of 9/11, as well as the ultimate meaninglessness of human lives and emotions.

Homework for November 19

1. Read Meir Sternberg's article "Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis" (it is tough to begin with, but as William Carlos Williams said, "There is no confusion; only difficulties") . p. 167-185 of the anthology.

2. Find, in the poems read in class (you may cheat and think of others), examples for the following processes of representing translation in literary texts:
- selective reproduction
- verbal transposition
- conceptual reflection
- explicit attribution

3. Suggest translations into Portuguese (or other languages) for the examples you found.